资源说明：Table of Contents Chapter 1 The Opto-Mechanical Design Process 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Conceptualization 1.3 Performance Specifications and Design Constraints 1.4 Preliminary Design 1.5 Design Analysis and Computer Modeling 1.6 Error Budgets and Tolerances 1.7 Experimental Modeling 1.8 Finalizing the Design 1.9 Design Reviews 1.10 Manufacturing the Instrument 1.11 Evaluating the End Product 1.12 Documenting the Design References Chapter 2 Environmental Influences 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Parameters of Concern 2.2.1 Temperature 2.2.2 Pressure 2.2.3 Static Strains and Stresses 2.2.4 Vibration 2.2.5 Shock 2.2.6 Humidity 2.2.7 Corrosion 2.2.8 Contamination 2.2.9 Fungus 2.2.10 Abrasion and Erosion 2.2.11 High-Energy Radiation and Micrometeorites 2.2.12 Laser Damage to Optical Components 2.2.12.1 Fundamental Mechanisms 2.2.12.2 Surfaces and Mirrors 2.2.12.3 Materials and Measurements 2.2.12.4 Thin Films 2.3 Environmental Testing of Optics References Chapter 3 Opto-Mechanical Characteristics of Materials 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Materials for Refracting Optics 3.2.1 General Considerations xv 3.2.2 Optical Glass 3.2.3 Optical Plastics 3.2.4 Optical Crystals 3.2.4.1 Alkali and Alkaline Earth Halides 3.2.4.2 Glasses and Other Oxides 3.2.4.3 Semiconductors 3.2.4.4 Chalcogenides 3.2.4.5 Coefficients Related to Optical Material Thermal Behavior 3.3 Materials for Reflecting Optics 3.3.1 Smoothness 3.3.2 Stability 3.3.3 Rigidity 3.4 Materials for Mechanical Components 3.4.1 Aluminum 3.4.1.1 Alloy 1100 3.4.1.2 Alloy 2024 3.4.1.3 Alloy 6061 3.4.1.4 Alloy 7075........................................................................................118 3.4.1.5 Alloy 356..........................................................................................118 3.4.2 Beryllium ..........................................................................................................118 3.4.3 Copper ..............................................................................................................121 3.4.3.1 Alloy C10100 ..................................................................................122 3.4.3.2 Alloy C17200 ..................................................................................122 3.4.3.3 Alloy C360 ......................................................................................122 3.4.3.4 Alloy C260 ......................................................................................122 3.4.3.5 Glidcop™ ........................................................................................122 3.4.4 Invar and Super Invar ........................................................................................122 3.4.5 Magnesium ........................................................................................................123 3.4.6 Carbon Steel ......................................................................................................123 3.4.7 Corrosion-Resistant Steel..................................................................................123 3.4.8 Titanium ............................................................................................................123 3.4.9 Silicon Carbide..................................................................................................124 3.4.10 Composite Materials ........................................................................................124 3.5 Adhesives ..........................................................................................................................128 3.5.1 Optical Cements ................................................................................................128 3.5.1.1 Solvent Loss Cements ......................................................................129 3.5.1.2 Thermoplastic Cements....................................................................129 3.5.1.3 Thermosetting Cements....................................................................129 3.5.1.4 Photosetting Cements ......................................................................130 3.5.2 Physical Characteristics ....................................................................................131 3.5.3 Transmission Characteristics ............................................................................131 3.5.4 Cementing Optical Surfaces..............................................................................132 3.5.5 Structural Adhesives..........................................................................................133 3.5.5.1 Epoxies ............................................................................................134 3.5.5.2 Urethane Adhesives ..........................................................................134 3.5.5.3 Cyanoacrylate Adhesives ................................................................137 3.6 Sealants.............................................................................................................................137 3.7 Special Coatings for Opto-Mechanical Materials ............................................................140 3.7.1 Protective Coatings............................................................................................140 3.7.1.1 Paints ................................................................................................140 3.7.1.2 Platings and Anodic Coatings ..........................................................141 3.7.1.3 Proprietary Coatings ........................................................................141 3.7.2 Optical Black Coatings ....................................................................................141 3.7.3 Coatings to Improve Surface Smoothness ........................................................143 3.7.3.1 Nickel ..............................................................................................143 3.7.3.2 Alumiplate®......................................................................................143 3.8 Techniques for Manufacturing Opto-Mechanical Parts ....................................................143 3.8.1 Manufacturing Optical Parts ............................................................................143 3.8.2 Manufacturing Mechanical Parts ......................................................................146 3.8.2.1 Machining Methods..........................................................................146 3.8.2.2 Casting Methods ..............................................................................147 3.8.2.3 Forging and Extrusion Methods ......................................................147 3.8.2.4 Fabricating and Curing Composites ................................................149 3.8.3 General Comments Regarding Manufacturing Processes ................................150 References .....................................................................................................................................151 Chapter 4 Mounting Individual Lenses 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................157 4.2 Considerations of Centered Optics ..................................................................................157 4.3 Cost Impacts of Fabrication Tolerances............................................................................167 4.4 Lens Weight and Center of Gravity Location ..................................................................173 4.4.1 Lens Weight Estimation ....................................................................................174 4.4.2 Lens Center of Gravity Location ......................................................................177 4.5 Mounting Individual Low-Precision Lenses ....................................................................178 4.5.1 Spring Mountings..............................................................................................178 4.5.2 Burnished Cell Mountings ................................................................................179 4.5.3 Snap Ring Mountings........................................................................................180 4.6 Mountings for Lenses with Curved Rims ........................................................................183 4.7 Mountings Interfacing with Spherical Surfaces................................................................184 4.7.1 General Considerations ....................................................................................184 4.7.2 The Threaded Retaining Ring Mounting ..........................................................187 4.7.3 Continuous Flange Mounting............................................................................192 4.7.4 Multiple Cantilevered Spring Clip Mounting ..................................................194 4.7.5 Opto-Mechanical Interface Types ....................................................................197 4.7.5.1 Sharp Corner Interface ....................................................................197 4.7.5.2 Tangential Interface..........................................................................197 4.7.5.3 Toroidal Interface ............................................................................198 4.7.5.4 Spherical Interface............................................................................198 4.7.5.5 Interfaces on Bevels ........................................................................198 4.8 Elastomeric Mountings for Lenses ..................................................................................202 4.9 Mounting Lenses on Flexures ..........................................................................................204 4.10 Alignment of the Individual Lens ....................................................................................207 4.11 Mounting Plastic Lenses ..................................................................................................222 References .....................................................................................................................................226 Chapter 5 Mounting Multiple Lenses 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................229 5.2 Multielement Spacing Considerations ..............................................................................229 5.3 Examples of Lens Assemblies with No Moving Parts......................................................235 5.3.1 Military Telescope Eyepiece ............................................................................235 5.3.2 Military Telescope Objective ............................................................................237 5.3.3 Fixed-Focus Relay Lens....................................................................................237 5.3.4 Aerial Photographic Objective Lens ................................................................239 5.3.5 Low-Distortion Projection Lens........................................................................240 5.3.6 Motion Picture Projection Lens ........................................................................241 5.3.7 Collimator Designed for High-Shock Loading ................................................241 5.3.8 Large Astrographic Objective ..........................................................................243 5.3.9 Infrared Sensor Lens ........................................................................................245 5.4 Examples of Lens Assemblies Containing Moving Parts ................................................245 5.4.1 Objectives Designed for Mid-IR Applications..................................................245 5.4.2 Internally Focusing Photographic Lenses ........................................................247 5.4.3 Binocular Focus Mechanisms ..........................................................................248 5.4.4 Zoom Lenses ....................................................................................................252 5.5 Lathe Assembly Techniques..............................................................................................259 5.6 Microscope Objectives ......................................................................................................264 5.7 Assemblies Using Plastic Parts ........................................................................................267 5.8 Liquid Coupling of Lenses................................................................................................270 5.9 Catadioptric Assemblies....................................................................................................272 5.10 Alignment of Multi-Lens Assemblies ..............................................................................282 5.11 Alignment of Reflecting Telescope Systems ....................................................................297 References .....................................................................................................................................298 Chapter 6 Mounting Windows and Filters 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................301 6.2 Conventional Window Mounts..........................................................................................302 6.3 Special Window Mounts ..................................................................................................303 6.4 Mounts for Shells and Domes ..........................................................................................310 6.5 Conformal Windows..........................................................................................................315 6.6 Filter Mounts ....................................................................................................................320 6.7 Windows Subject to a Pressure Differential ....................................................................323 6.7.1 Survival..............................................................................................................323 6.7.2 Optical Performance Degradation ....................................................................327 References .....................................................................................................................................329 Chapter 7 Designing and Mounting Prisms 7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................331 7.2 Geometric Relationships ..................................................................................................331 7.2.1 Refraction and Reflection at Prism Surfaces ....................................................331 7.2.2 Aberrations Caused by Prisms and Plates ........................................................332 7.2.3 Beam Displacements Caused by Prisms and Plates ........................................332 7.2.4 Tunnel Diagrams ..............................................................................................333 7.2.5 Total Internal Reflection....................................................................................336 7.3 Designs for Typical Prisms ..............................................................................................337 7.3.1 The Right-Angle Prism ....................................................................................338 7.3.2 The Beam Splitter (or Beam Combiner) Cube Prism ......................................338 7.3.3 The Amici Prism ..............................................................................................338 7.3.4 The Porro Prism ................................................................................................339 7.3.5 The Abbe Version of the Porro Prism ..............................................................339 7.3.6 The Porro Erecting System ..............................................................................342 7.3.7 The Abbe Erecting System................................................................................344 7.3.8 The Rhomboid Prism ........................................................................................345 7.3.9 The Dove Prism ................................................................................................346 7.3.10 Double-Dove Prism ..........................................................................................346 7.3.11 The Penta Prism ................................................................................................347 7.3.12 The Roof Penta Prism ......................................................................................348 7.3.13 The Amici/Penta and Right-Angle/Roof Penta Erecting Systems....................349 7.3.14 The Reversion, Abbe Type A, and Abbe Type B Prisms ..................................349 7.3.15 The Delta Prism ................................................................................................350 7.3.16 The Pechan Prism..............................................................................................352 7.3.17 The Schmidt Prism............................................................................................355 7.3.18 The 45° Bauernfeind Prism ..............................................................................358 7.3.19 The Frankford Arsenal Prisms Nos. 1 and 2 ....................................................358 7.3.20 The Leman Prism ..............................................................................................359 7.3.21 An Internally Reflecting Axicon Prism ............................................................359 7.3.22 The Cube-Corner Prism ....................................................................................359 7.3.23 An Ocular Prism for a Coincidence Rangefinder ............................................361 7.3.24 A Biocular Prism System..................................................................................365 7.3.25 Dispersing Prisms..............................................................................................366 7.3.26 Thin-Wedge Prism Systems ..............................................................................368 7.3.26.1 The Thin Wedge ..............................................................................368 7.3.26.2 The Risley Wedge System................................................................368 7.3.26.3 The Longitudinally Sliding Wedge ..................................................370 7.3.26.4 A Focus-Adjusting Wedge System ..................................................370 7.3.27 Anamorphic Prism Systems ..............................................................................371 7.4 Kinematic and Semikinematic Prism Mounting Principles..............................................373 7.5 Mounting Prisms by Clamping ........................................................................................375 7.5.1 Prism Mounts: Semikinematic ..........................................................................375 7.5.2 Prism Mounts: Nonkinematic ..........................................................................384 7.6 Mounting Prisms by Bonding ..........................................................................................387 7.7 Flexure Mounts for Prisms................................................................................................396 References .....................................................................................................................................399 Chapter 8 Design and Mounting Small, Nonmetallic Mirrors, Gratings, and Pellicles 8.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................401 8.2 General Considerations ....................................................................................................402 8.2.1 Mirror Applications ..........................................................................................402 8.2.2 Geometric Configurations ................................................................................402 8.2.3 Reflected Image Orientation ............................................................................402 8.2.4 Beam Prints on Optical Surfaces ......................................................................405 8.2.5 Mirror Coatings ................................................................................................408 8.2.6 Ghost Image Formation by Second-Surface Mirrors........................................411 8.3 Semikinematic Mountings for Small Mirrors ..................................................................415 8.4 Mounting Mirrors by Bonding..........................................................................................425 8.5 Flexure Mounts for Mirrors ..............................................................................................428 8.6 Multiple-Mirror Mounts....................................................................................................433 8.7 Mountings for Gratings ....................................................................................................441 8.8 Pellicle Design and Mounting ..........................................................................................444 References .....................................................................................................................................446 Chapter 9 Lightweight Nonmetallic Mirror Design 9.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................449 9.2 Material Considerations ....................................................................................................450 9.3 Core Cell Configurations ..................................................................................................451 9.4 Cast Ribbed Substrates......................................................................................................453 9.5 Slotted-Strut and Fused Monolithic Substrates ................................................................456 9.6 Frit-Bonded Substrates......................................................................................................463 9.7 Low-Temperature Bonded Substrates ..............................................................................465 9.8 Machined-Core Substrates ................................................................................................466 9.9 Contoured-Back Solid Mirror Configurations ..................................................................470 9.10 Thin Face Sheet Mirror Configurations ............................................................................472 9.11 Scaling Relationships for Lightweight Mirrors ................................................................473 References .....................................................................................................................................477 Chapter 10 Mounting Large, Horizontal-Axis Mirrors 10.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................481 10.2 General Considerations of Gravity Effects ......................................................................481 10.3 V-Type Mounts..................................................................................................................482 10.4 Multipoint Edge Supports ................................................................................................489 10.5 The Ideal Radial Mount ....................................................................................................491 10.6 Mercury Tube Mounts ......................................................................................................492 10.7 Strap and Roller-Chain Mounts ........................................................................................493 10.8 Push–Pull Mounts ............................................................................................................498 10.9 Comparison of Dynamic Relaxation and Finite-Element Analysis Techniques ..............499 References .....................................................................................................................................501 Chapter 11 Mounting Large Vertical-Axis Mirrors 11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................503 11.2 Ring Mounts......................................................................................................................503 11.3 Air Bag (Bladder) Mounts ................................................................................................506 11.4 Multiple-Point Supports ....................................................................................................509 11.4.1 Three-Point Mounts ..........................................................................................509 11.4.2 Hindle Mounts ..................................................................................................512 11.4.3 Counterweighted Mounts ..................................................................................515 11.4.4 Pneumatic/Hydraulic Mounts............................................................................516 11.5 Metrology Mounts ............................................................................................................518 11.5.1 A 36-Point Pneumatic Metrology Mount ........................................................519 11.5.2 A 27-Point Hydraulic Metrology Mount ..........................................................519 11.5.3 A 52-Point Spring Matrix Metrology Mount....................................................520 11.5.4 Lateral Constraints during Polishing ................................................................524 References .....................................................................................................................................525 Chapter 12 Mounting Large, Variable-Orientation Mirrors 12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................527 12.2 Mechanical Flotation Mounts ..........................................................................................527 12.3 Hydraulic/Pneumatic Mounts............................................................................................534 12.3.1 Historical Background ......................................................................................534 12.3.2 Gemini Telescopes ............................................................................................537 12.3.3 New Multiple Mirror Telescope........................................................................545 12.4 Center-Mounted Mirrors ..................................................................................................548 12.5 Mounts for Double-Arch Mirrors ....................................................................................553 12.6 Bipod Mirror Mounts ........................................................................................................557 12.7 Thin Face Sheet Mirror Mounts........................................................................................561 12.7.1 General Considerations ....................................................................................561 12.7.2 The Keck Telescopes ........................................................................................566 12.7.3 Adaptive Mirror Systems ..................................................................................571 12.7.3.1 The Advanced Electro-Optical System Telescope ..........................574 12.7.3.2 The MMT Adaptive Secondary Mirror ............................................575 12.8 Mounts for Large Space-Borne Mirrors............................................................................577 12.8.1 The Hubble Space Telescope ............................................................................577 12.8.2 The Chandra X-Ray Telescope ........................................................................579 References .....................................................................................................................................582 Chapter 13 Design and Mounting of Metallic Mirrors 13.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................585 13.2 General Considerations of Metal Mirrors ........................................................................585 13.3 Aluminum Mirrors ............................................................................................................587 13.3.1 Cast Aluminum Mirrors ....................................................................................593 13.3.2 Machined Aluminum Mirrors ..........................................................................593 13.3.3 Welded Aluminum Mirrors ..............................................................................595 13.4 Beryllium Mirrors ............................................................................................................598 13.5 Mirrors Made from Other Metals ....................................................................................607 13.5.1 Copper Mirrors..................................................................................................607 13.5.2 Molybdenum Mirrors ........................................................................................607 13.5.3 Silicon Carbide Mirrors ....................................................................................608 13.6 Mirrors with Foam and Metal Matrix Cores ....................................................................611 13.7 Plating of Metal Mirrors ..................................................................................................623 13.8 Single-Point Diamond Turning of Metal Mirrors ............................................................625 13.9 Conventional Mountings for Metal Mirrors......................................................................636 13.10 Integral Mountings for Metal Mirrors ..............................................................................638 13.11 Flexure Mountings for Larger Metal Mirrors ..................................................................642 13.12 Interfacing Multiple SPDT Components to Facilitate Assembly and Alignment ............648 References .....................................................................................................................................652 Chapter 14 Optical Instrument Structural Design 14.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................659 14.2 Rigid Housing Configurations ..........................................................................................659 14.2.1 Military Binoculars ..........................................................................................659 14.2.2 Commercial Binoculars ....................................................................................662 14.2.3 Tank Periscopes ................................................................................................663 14.2.4 Space-Borne Spectro-Radiometer Cameras......................................................666 14.2.5 Large Aerial Camera Lens ................................................................................669 14.2.6 A Thermally Stable Optical Structure ..............................................................674 14.3 Modular Design Principles and Examples........................................................................675 14.3.1 Injection-Molded Plastic Modules ....................................................................676 14.3.2 A Modular Military Binocular ..........................................................................677 14.3.3 A Modular Spectrometer for Space Application ..............................................682 14.3.4 A Dual-Collimator Module ..............................................................................685 14.4 A Structural Design for High Shock Loading ..................................................................687 14.5 Athermalized Structural Designs ......................................................................................689 14.5.1 Instruments Made from a Single Material ........................................................689 14.5.1.1 The IRAS Telescope ........................................................................689 14.5.1.2 The Spitzer Space Telescope............................................................690 14.5.1.3 A Telescope with Optical and Inter-Component Interfaces Processed by SPDT ........................................................693 14.5.2 Active Control of Focus ....................................................................................694 14.5.3 Instruments Athermalized with Metering Sructures ........................................695 14.5.3.1 The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory..........................................696 14.5.3.2 The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite ................698 14.5.3.3 The Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph ..............................702 14.5.3.4 Athermalization of the Multiangle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer..........................................................................703 14.5.3.5 Athermalization of the Hubble Space Telescope Truss Structure ................................................................................706 14.5.3.6 Athermalization of the Galaxy Evolution Explorer ........................709 14.5.4 Athermalization of Refracting Optical Systems ..............................................712 14.6. Geometries for Telescope Tube Structures ......................................................................716 14.6.1 The Serrurier Truss............................................................................................716 14.6.2 The New Multiple-Mirror Telescope ................................................................718 14.6.3 The N-Tiered Truss ..........................................................................................721 14.6.4 The Chandra Telescope ....................................................................................721 14.6.5 Truss Geometries for Minimal Gravitational and Wind Deflections ..............................................................................................724 14.6.6 Determinate Space Frames................................................................................725 References .....................................................................................................................................729 Chapter 15 Analysis of the Opto-Mechanical Design 15.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................733 15.2 Failure Predictions for Optics ..........................................................................................733 15.2.1 General Considerations ....................................................................................733 15.2.2 Testing to Determine Component Strength ......................................................735 15.2.3 The Weibull Failure Prediction Method............................................................740 15.2.4 The Safety Factor ..............................................................................................742 15.2.5 Time-to-Failure Prediction ................................................................................743 15.2.6 Rule-of-Thumb Stress Tolerances ....................................................................744 15.3 Stress Generation at Opto-Mechanical Interfaces ............................................................748 15.3.1 Point Contacts ..................................................................................................748 15.3.2 Short Line Contacts ..........................................................................................751 15.3.3 Annular Contacts ..............................................................................................756 15.3.3.1 The Sharp Corner Interface..............................................................758 15.3.3.2 The Tangential Interface ..................................................................759 15.3.3.3 The Toroidal Interface ......................................................................759 15.3.3.4 The Spherical Interface ....................................................................761 15.3.3.5 The Flat Bevel Interface ..................................................................762 15.4 Parametric Comparisons of Annular Interface Types ......................................................762 15.5 Bending Effects Due to Offset Annular Contacts ............................................................764 15.5.1 Bending Stress in the Optical Component........................................................765 15.5.2 Change in Surface Sagittal Depth of a Bent Optic ..........................................767 15.6 Effects of Temperature Changes ......................................................................................767 15.6.1 Radial Effects at Reduced Temperature............................................................768 15.6.1.1 Radial Stress in the Optic ................................................................768 15.6.1.2 Tangential (Hoop) Stress in the Mount Wall ..................................769 15.6.2 Radial Effects at Increased Temperature ..........................................................770 15.6.3 Changes in Axial Preload Caused by Temperature Changes............................770 15.6.3.1 General Considerations ....................................................................770 15.6.3.2 Approximation of K3 Considering Bulk Effects Only ....................772 15.6.3.3 Approximation of K3 Considering Effects Other Than Bulk Effects ......................................................................................778 15.6.3.3.1 Glass and Metal Surface Deflection Effects ................779 15.6.3.3.2 Retainer Deflection Effects ..........................................779 15.6.3.3.3 Shoulder Deflection Effects..........................................780 15.6.3.3.4 Radial Dimension Change Effects................................780 15.6.3.4 Illustrative Examples of K3 Estimation ............................................780 15.6.4 Estimation of Tensile Contact Stresses in the Lens at Various Temperatures ........................................................................................781 15.6.5 Advantages of Providing Controlled Axial Compliance in the Lens or Mirror Mount ......................................................................................784 15.7 Effects of Temperature Gradients ....................................................................................795 15.7.1 Radial Temperature Gradients ..........................................................................798 15.7.2 Axial Temperature Gradients ............................................................................800 15.8 Stresses in Cemented and Bonded Optics Due to Temperature Changes ........................800 15.9 Some Effects of Temperature Changes on Elastomerically Mounted Lenses ................................................................................................................803 References .....................................................................................................................................806 Appendix A Units and Their Conversion ..........................................................................................................809 Appendix B Summary of Methods for Testing Optical Components and Optical Instruments under Adverse Environmental Conditions B.1 Cold, Heat, Humidity Testing ..........................................................................................811 B.2 Mechanical Stress Testing ................................................................................................811 B.3 Salt Mist Testing ..............................................................................................................812 B.4 Cold, Low Air Pressure Testing ........................................................................................812 B.5 Dust Testing ......................................................................................................................812 B.6 Drip, Rain Testing ............................................................................................................812 B.7 High-Pressure, Low-Pressure, Immersion Testing ..........................................................813 B.8 Solar Radiation ................................................................................................................813 B.9 Combined Sinusoidal Vibration, Dry Heat, or Cold Testing ..........................................813 B.10 Mold Growth Testing ......................................................................................................813 B.11 Corrosion Testing ..............................................................................................................814 B.12 Combined Shock, Bump, or Free Fall, Dry Heat, or Cold Testing ................................814 B.13 Dew, Hoarfrost, Ice Testing ............................................................................................815 Appendix C Hardness of Materials References .....................................................................................................................................817 Appendix D Glossary D.1 Units of Measure and Abbreviations Used ......................................................................819 D.2 Prefixes ..............................................................................................................................820 D.3 Greek Symbol Applications ..............................................................................................820 D.4 Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Other Terms ....................................................................820 Index .........................................................................................................................................827

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